Published on
June 24, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
September 24, 2024
Amphiboly refers to ambiguity in language that arises from unclear grammar, allowing a phrase or sentence to be interpreted in multiple ways.
The amphiboly fallacy is a relatively rare logical fallacy in which a statement’s ambiguous grammatical structure leads to misinterpretations and misleading conclusions.
Amphiboly examples
Amphiboly: “Call me a taxi.”
Explanation: This could be a request to summon a taxi cab, but it could also be interpreted as a request to be referred to as “a taxi.”
Amphiboly: “The chicken is ready to eat.”
Explanation: This could mean that a cooked chicken is ready to be eaten, but it could also mean that a live chicken is ready to eat something.
Amphiboly: “She saw a man on a hill with a telescope.”
Explanation: This could mean that someone used a telescope to view a man on a hill, but it could also mean that the man on the hill had a telescope.
Published on
June 10, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
September 30, 2024
Ambiguity occurs when an expression or idea is unclear or open to multiple interpretations. Unintentional ambiguity can be confusing and can lead to misunderstandings.
Ambiguity example“He gave her cat food.”
This could mean someone’s cat was fed or someone was fed cat food.
Published on
June 10, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
September 30, 2024
Loaded questions are designed to make someone concede an unproven point. They are considered a form of logical fallacy because they undermine honest discussion.
Loaded question example“Do you have any regrets about your terrible choices?”
Examples of loaded questions are common in media, politics, and everyday conversations.
Published on
May 30, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
November 21, 2024
Reductio ad absurdum is the strategy of disproving a claim by demonstrating its logical contradictions. This involves assuming the claim is true to show that it leads to contradictions and cannot actually be true.
Reductio ad absurdum exampleClaim: “The truth cannot be known.”
Reductio ad absurdum: “If the truth cannot be known, then it cannot be known whether the statement ‘the truth cannot be known’ is true.”
Reductio ad absurdum is used in philosophy, mathematics, law, and other disciplines where logical consistency is important.
Published on
May 8, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
September 24, 2024
A disjunctive syllogism is an argument with two premises and a conclusion that describes an either–or relationship. The conclusion is derived through a process of elimination when one of the two options is negated.
Disjunctive syllogism example
A shape is either a hexagon or an octagon.
The shape is not a hexagon.
Therefore, the shape is an octagon.
This argument fits the structure of a disjunctive syllogism because it presents a choice between two options (hexagon or octagon), negates one (hexagon), and concludes by affirming the other (octagon).
Disjunctive syllogisms are typically used in formal logic, but mathematics, computer programming, and other disciplines often use the same pattern of reasoning expressed in different ways.
Published on
May 8, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
January 13, 2025
Hypothetical syllogisms are arguments in formal logic that deduce conclusions from conditional (if–then) statements.
Hypothetical syllogism example
Premise: If an animal has exactly six legs, then it is an insect.
Premise: And if an animal is an insect, then it has three body segments (head, thorax, and abdomen).
Conclusion: Therefore, if an animal has six legs, then it also has three body segments.
This is an example of a hypothetical syllogism that includes a conditional (if–then) statement in each premise. The conclusion follows from the premises with logical certainty.
Syllogisms are typically found in contexts such as formal logic, but syllogistic reasoning is also applied in fields like science and mathematics.
Published on
May 5, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
September 16, 2024
Deductive reasoning involves forming a specific conclusion from general premises.
A deductive argument typically starts with a broad principle, applies it to a particular situation or example, and leads to an inevitable conclusion.
Premises in deductive reasoning example
Premise: All humans are mortal.
Premise: Socrates is human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
This classic example of deductive reasoning begins with a broad principle and then applies that principle to a particular person. The premises lead inevitably to the conclusion, which makes a more specific claim than the premises.
Deduction is the mode of reasoning used in formal logic, which has applications in mathematics, logic, science, and law. In everyday decision-making and thought processes, deductive reasoning often falls into the category of “common sense” thinking.
Published on
May 4, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
January 13, 2025
A syllogism is an argument that consists of two premises and a conclusion. Syllogisms express deductive reasoning, forming specific conclusions from general principles.
Syllogism example
No fish can survive without water.
Sharks are fish.
Therefore, sharks cannot survive without water.
The main purpose of a syllogism is to prove a conclusion with logical certainty.
Syllogisms are typically found in academic and professional domains, such as formal logic and mathematics. We often use syllogistic reasoning to make decisions in everyday life even if we don’t often express these thoughts verbally.
Published on
May 3, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
August 22, 2024
Modus tollens is a valid form of deductive argument also known as denying the consequent.
Used in formal logic, modus tollens is a type of hypothetical syllogism that involves an if–then statement followed by a negation of the “then” statement (i.e., the consequent). It is typically expressed as follows:
If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P.
Modus tollens example
If an object is made of iron, it will be attracted to a magnet.
This object is not attracted to a magnet.
Therefore, this object is not made of iron.
Modus tollens is used to demonstrate that a hypothesis is false when a necessary condition is not met.
Published on
April 26, 2024
by
Magedah Shabo
Revised on
February 11, 2025
Modus ponens is a type of conditional syllogism that takes the following form:
If P, then Q.
P.
Therefore, Q.
Arguments that correctly apply this form are valid, meaning that the conclusion follows logically from the premises.
Modus ponens example
If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal.
Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
The reasoning expressed in modus ponens and other formal arguments is especially crucial in contexts such as philosophical debates, legal reasoning, scientific research, mathematical proofs, computer science, and natural language processing.
