What Is Modus Tollens? | Definition & Examples
Modus tollens is a valid form of deductive argument also known as denying the consequent.
Used in formal logic, modus tollens is a type of hypothetical syllogism that involves an if–then statement followed by a negation of the “then” statement (i.e., the consequent). It is typically expressed as follows:
- If P, then Q.
- Not Q.
- Therefore, not P.
- If an object is made of iron, it will be attracted to a magnet.
- This object is not attracted to a magnet.
- Therefore, this object is not made of iron.
Modus tollens is used to demonstrate that a hypothesis is false when a necessary condition is not met.
What is modus tollens?
Modus tollens is a valid form of argumentation in formal logic. It begins with a conditional (if–then) statement and proceeds to negate the consequent (the “then” statement). This structure is often expressed using the variables P and Q, as follows:
Conditional statement | If P, then Q. |
Denial of the consequent | Not Q. |
Conclusion | Therefore, not P |
Denying the consequent is another name for modus tollens because the second premise always negates the “then” statement (Q) from the first premise.
The logic of modus tollens is often an implicit part of everyday decision-making and problem-solving. We typically perform this type of analysis automatically without needing to think about it or put it into words.
- If a book is in the biography section, then it chronicles the life of a real person.
- The book I’m looking for does not chronicle the life of a real person.
- Therefore, the book I’m looking for is not in the biography section.
Modus tollens is often used in reasoning that involves classifications and definitions.
The logical framework used in modus tollens and other formal arguments plays a vital role in domains such as law, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
Modus tollens examples
Examples of modus tollens can be found in various domains of philosophy, including ethics, epistemology, and logic.
Modus tollens example in philosophy
- If an action is morally right, then it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
- The decision to endanger workers to maximize profit does not promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
- Therefore, the decision is not morally right.
In philosophy, modus tollens can be used to evaluate the morality of an action or belief based on an ethical framework (in this example, utilitarianism) among other applications.
Modus tollens example in science
Modus tollens is an essential part of scientific inquiry. It provides a framework for falsifying and refining hypotheses, ensuring that scientific conclusions are based on verifiable evidence.
- If a chemical is an acid, then it turns litmus paper red.
- This chemical does not turn litmus paper red.
- Therefore, this chemical is not an acid.
Modus tollens provides a framework for demonstrating that an expected outcome (in this case, turning litmus paper red) does not occur, thus invalidating the initial hypothesis (i.e., the assumption about the substance’s acidic nature).
Modus tollens example in law
In legal contexts, the logic of modus tollens is typically used to prove that certain conditions defined by law have not been met.
For instance, an attorney might use modus tollens reasoning to prove that a person or organization has failed to comply with a law or properly execute a contract.
- If a company complies with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, then it reports internal accounting controls to the SEC.
- Acme Corporation has not reported its internal accounting controls.
- Therefore, Acme Corporation is not compliant with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
In legal contexts, modus tollens is typically used to demonstrate how a person or organization has failed to fulfill a legally required standard.
Modus tollens and modus ponens
Modus tollens and modus ponens are both hypothetical syllogisms beginning with an if–then premise, but they differ in their approaches to the second premise.
Modus tollens supports a conclusion by denying the consequent, using the following form:
Conditional statement | If P, then Q. |
Denial of the consequent | Not Q. |
Conclusion | Therefore, not P. |
- If an animal is a bird, then it has feathers.
- Squirrels do not have feathers.
- Therefore, squirrels are not birds.
In contrast, modus ponens supports a conclusion by affirming the antecedent in the second premise, as follows:
Conditional statement | If P, then Q. |
Affirmation of the antecedent | P. |
Conclusion | Therefore, Q. |
- If an animal is a bird, then it has feathers.
- Ostriches have feathers.
- Therefore, ostriches are birds.
Both syllogisms are valid; in each of the two arguments, the conclusion must be true if both premises are assumed to be true.
Modus tollens vs logical fallacies
Flawed attempts at formulating a modus tollens argument or other syllogism typically result in formal logical fallacies (or non sequitur fallacies).
A properly constructed modus tollens argument is always valid, which means that if the premises are assumed to be true, the conclusion logically follows. However, formal fallacies are always invalid because of their incorrect structure.
Two fallacies are particularly easy to confuse with modus tollens:
- Denying the antecedent: Asserting that the antecedent of a hypothetical syllogism is false does not automatically imply that the consequent is false.
- Example: The argument “If it is snowing, then it is cold. It is not snowing. Therefore, it is not cold” is invalid. Temperatures can be low without resulting in snowfall.
- Affirming the consequent: Verifying the truth of the consequent in a hypothetical syllogism does not confirm the truth of the antecedent.
- Example: The argument “If the car’s battery is dead, then the car won’t start. The car won’t start. Therefore, the car’s battery is dead” is invalid. There are other potential reasons the car might not start, such as an empty fuel tank or a faulty ignition switch.
These formal fallacies incorrectly handle the logical relationship between antecedent and consequent, making their forms invalid.
Frequently asked questions about modus tollens
- What is the English translation of “modus tollens”?
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“Modus tollens” translates to “method of denying” in English.
In contrast, the Latin term “modus ponens” means “method of affirming.” Both refer to types of syllogisms.
- How does modus tollens relate to contrapositives in logic?
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A contrapositive negates and reverses a conditional (if–then) statement. For example, the contrapositive for the statement “If P, then Q” is “If not Q, then not P.”
Modus tollens validates the contrapositive, demonstrating that “not P” follows logically from “not Q” as follows:
- If P, then Q.
- Not Q.
- Therefore, not P.
- Is modus tollens a logical fallacy?
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Modus tollens is not a logical fallacy; it is a valid approach to deductive reasoning.
However, syllogisms such as modus tollens are often conflated with formal logical fallacies (or non sequitur fallacies).
The two fallacies that are most easily conflated with modus tollens are affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent.
- Affirming the consequent takes the form “If P, then Q. Q. Therefore, P.” This argument is invalid because P might not be the only potential cause of Q.
- Denying the antecedent takes the form “If P, then Q. Not P. Therefore, not Q.” This argument is fallacious because negating P doesn’t prove that Q is impossible.