In a cross-sectional study, researchers collect data from individuals at a single point in time.
In a longitudinal study, researchers collect data from individuals repeatedly or continuously over an extended period of time (often years).
Cross-sectional studies are faster and less expensive to conduct than longitudinal studies. However, because they collect data at a single point in time, cross-sectional studies are not the best option for establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
A common practice is to conduct a cross-sectional study to generate hypotheses. You can then use this information to design a longitudinal study.
Continue reading: What is the difference between a cross sectional study and a longitudinal study?
A Likert-type scale resembles a Likert scale—the respondent is presented with a series of statements, and they select their response from a set of ranked options.
However, for a true Likert scale, the respondent rates their level of agreement with these statements using a 5- or 7-point scale. Likert-type scales may instead ask people to rate constructs like frequency, satisfaction, or likelihood.
An example of a true Likert scale item is as follows:
Please rate your agreement with the following statement: I am most productive in the morning.
- Strongly disagree
- Disagree
- Neither agree nor disagree
- Agree
- Strongly Agree
A Likert-type scale may include items such as the following:
How frequently do you wake up before 8 a.m.?
- Never
- Rarely
- Sometimes
- Often
- Always
Continue reading: What is a Likert type scale?
Though traditional Likert scales include a 5-point response scale, some research has indicated that 7-point scales provide more reliable results.
As a rule of thumb, 5-point scales are better for unipolar constructs, which range from zero to positive, such as frequency. You may want to use 7-point scales for bipolar (or dichotomous) constructs that range from negative to positive, such as quality—some evidence suggests that doing so can increase reliability.
Continue reading: Should I use a 5- or 7-point Likert scale?
The term Likert scale is commonly mispronounced. The correct pronunciation is “Lick-urt,” not “Lie-kert.” The scale is named after its creator, Rensis Likert, and this is how you correctly say his last name.
Continue reading: How do you pronounce Likert scale?
Open-ended and close-ended questions can both be included in questionnaires, but they serve different purposes.
Open-ended questions have no set response: the respondent can respond in their own words. This freedom may encourage more detailed or unpredicted responses. However, responses to open-ended questions are often more time-consuming and difficult to analyze.
Close-ended questions have set response options. They can be answered quickly but limit the detail the respondent is able to provide. Types of close-ended questions include multiple-choice questions, rating scales, and Likert scales.
Continue reading: What’s the difference between open-ended and close-ended questions?
A rating scale is a type of multiple-choice question often included in a questionnaire. Rating scales include ordered response options that range from low to high (unipolar) or negative to positive (dichotomous). Rating scales are often used to assess frequency, satisfaction, or other subjective experiences.
A Likert scale is a special type of rating scale that is used to assess a person’s level of agreement with a series of statements about a topic.
Continue reading: What is a rating scale?
Yes—the Likert scale, which is often included in questionnaires, is an example of an ordinal measurement.
Ordinal data have a clear order (items can be logically sorted), but the distance between items is not uniform nor quantifiable.
A Likert scale asks someone to rate how much they agree with a series of statements. Response options typically include “Strongly disagree,” “Disagree,” “Neutral,” “Agree,” and “Strongly agree.”
Because these options have a clear rank (we can easily and objectively order them) but unclear spacing (i.e., the distance between “Disagree” and “Neutral” isn’t necessarily the same as the distance between “Neutral” and “Agree”), a Likert scale is considered an ordinal measurement.
Note: For analysis, Likert scale data are sometimes converted to numbers and treated as integer data. This process allows the research to use certain analysis techniques. It’s always important to carefully consider and provide justification for any analyses you decide to conduct.
Continue reading: Is a Likert scale ordinal?
People are highly sensitive to question order when filling out questionnaires. Question-order bias refers to how earlier questions may influence how someone responds to later questions (this is sometimes called “priming”).
For example, when people are first asked to rate their general life satisfaction and then asked about relationship satisfaction, they respond more positively than when these questions are reversed.
Continue reading: What is question-order bias?
The terms survey and questionnaire are often used interchangeably, but they are not the same.
A survey is a research method that involves collecting a large amount of information about a topic.
A questionnaire is a tool used to collect data. It comprises a series of questions that someone answers. A questionnaire may be used to collect data when a researcher is conducting a survey.
Continue reading: What’s the difference between a survey and a questionnaire?
Descriptive research is a research method that aims to uncover the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Research questions can be addressed using techniques like surveys and observation.
Examples of descriptive research questions include the following:
- What percentage of people in a community experience food insecurity?
- What is the most popular social media platform for people under the age of 25?
- How many cars does the average American family own?
Descriptive research can answer what, where, when, and how questions but not why questions. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used for descriptive research.
Continue reading: What are descriptive research methods?
