Why is information literacy important?

Strong academic research requires engagement with information from other researchers, but this is only valid when the sources used are accurate. Online information and published articles may exhibit bias, lack credibility, or lack evidence to support their claims.

Information literacy denotes the range of skills you need to be able to decipher the credibility of a source. Information literacy and critical thinking are fundamental to academic research and responsible media consumption more broadly. It is also essential to compare and contrast sources.

QuillBot offers a free notepad online that can help you keep track of your notes and all the sources you consult.

Citation: Other interesting questions

When do I need MLA in-text citations?: MLA in-text citations must be included any time you quote or paraphrase another source. Failing to include a citation could result in accidental plagiarism.

Citations are not usually needed for generally available knowledge, such as the dates of historical events or the birthdates of historical figures.
How can I cite information from a footnote in MLA style?: To cite information from a footnote in an MLA in-text citation, include the author’s name and page number as usual, followed by “n” and the footnote number (Bing 205n4).

To cite multiple footnotes, use “nn” and an en dash with the number range (Bing 205nn4–8).

For footnotes without numbers, include a space after the page number followed by “un” (Bing 103 un).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can automatically create citations for all types of sources.
How do I cite a source with no author in MLA?: MLA in-text citations for sources without an author should include the first element of the corresponding Works Cited entry. This is usually the title of the piece (“Practice Writing Exercises”) or the name of the organization that has published the piece (Princeton Review).
Are quotes appropriate in academic writing?: Quotes are a valuable tool for enhancing your argument and adding additional support for your claims. However, it is important to avoid overusing quotes, as this can cause your own voice to be lost.

When you use quotes in academic writing, accompany them with analysis and explanation, and do not include quotes for information that you can present in your own words.

Our Word Counter, Paraphraser, and article summarizer tools can help improve your academic writing and avoid errors.
What information needs to be included in a citation?: The information contained in a citation depends on the style guide you are following.

APA in-text citations, for example, include the author’s last name and the publication year, separated by a comma (e.g., Turing, 1947).

MLA in-text citations include the author’s last name and the page number (e.g., Dahl 167).

Chicago citations include the author’s last name and the publication year, as well as the page number (e.g., Dahl 1961, 167).

Essentially, in-text citations must contain the necessary information for a reader to be able to identify the complete citation in your reference list.
What is the difference between quoting and paraphrasing?: A quote is a direct copy of another person’s words and must be enclosed in quotation marks.

Paraphrasing is a summary or rephrasing of another person’s words without using the exact language.

Both quoted and paraphrased material must be accompanied by a citation to avoid plagiarism.
What is a parenthetical citation?: A parenthetical citation is an in-text citation within a set of parentheses. It includes source information like the name of the author, publication date, and page number(s). It will usually come at the end of a sentence before the punctuation mark.

Parenthetical citations vary depending on the citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you quickly generate citations in APA, MLA, and Chicago style formats.
What is the difference between a parenthetical and narrative citation?: An APA parenthetical citation includes the author’s name, publication date, and page number(s) within parentheses. In APA Style, a narrative citation has the author’s name in the sentence and the date of publication in parentheses.

Example: In As I Lay Dying, Faulker illustrates the effects of death on the living (1930).

QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you quickly generate citations in APA, MLA, and Chicago style formats.
How do you create an APA parenthetical citation?: To cite a text in an APA parenthetical citation, list the author’s last name and the publication year, separated by commas. If you use a direct quotation, also include a page number.

Example: (Smith, 2014) or (Smith, 2014, p. 67)

QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you quickly generate citations in APA, MLA, and Chicago style formats. Additionally, you can keep track of source information with our free notepad online.
How do I cite a source with an unknown author or publication date in APA?: In APA in-text citations, sources without a known author should be cited using the source title or organization name (Quillbot, 2024).

Sources without a publication date can use “n.d.” in lieu of the date (Yintl, n.d.).
When should I include a page number in an APA in-text citation?: Page numbers are only necessary in APA in-text citations when material is directly quoted. Include the page number after the publication date (Author, date, p. 1).

To cite a page range, include “pp.” and use an en dash (Author, date, pp. 1–10).
How do I cite multiple sources by the same author in APA Style?: In APA Style, if you use multiple sources from the same author that have different publication years, the different publication years are sufficient to distinguish the citations.

To cite multiple sources with the same publication year in an APA in-text citation, include the author name and date as usual, and add a lowercase letter to the end of the publication year (Perkins, 2004a; Perkins, 2004b).

You can keep track of all relevant source information with QuillBot’s writing pad online.
How do I cite an indirect source in APA Style? (“as cited in”): To cite an indirect source in APA in-text citations, include the author name and date where available, followed by “as cited in” and the author name and date of the secondary source you are using.

Parenthetical: (Weber, 2010, as cited in Baqqa, 2016)
Narrative: Weber (2010, as cited in Baqqa, 2016) claims that …

QuillBot’s writing pad online can help you keep track of all relevant source information.
Should I place the in-text citation before or after the period?: In-text citations should always come before punctuation, including periods, commas, semicolons, and dashes. You can include a citation mid-sentence or at the end of the sentence.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can automatically create citations for you in any style.
What are some examples of primary sources?: Primary sources include statistical data, speeches, transcripts, photographs or videos, original artistic or literary works, and historical documents.

If you analyze something directly, it functions as a primary source. This includes your own original quantitative or qualitative data.
How can you tell if a source is primary or secondary?: To evaluate whether a source is a primary or secondary source, ask the following questions:

Is the source from someone who participated in the studied event (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?

Am I examining the source itself (primary) as my main research objective, or is it supplying background information?

Does the source give novel information or data (primary), or is it commenting on, interpreting, and or analyzing information from other sources (secondary)?

Some sources generally always serve as primary sources. These include artworks and literature, raw statistics, official documents and records, and personal communications such as journal entries or interviews.

Primary sources are generally considered the most credible evidence to use to support an argument because they are directly involved with the research subject. However, you should still vet these sources for reliability and accuracy.

All sources you use must be accompanied by a citation to avoid plagiarism. You can use QuillBot’s Citation Generator to automatically generate citations for all types of sources.
What are some examples of secondary sources?: Secondary sources include textbooks, journal or newspaper articles, reviews, essays, or biographies.

Secondary sources summarize, analyze, and interpret primary sources. Sources that provide an overview on a topic or give another researcher’s views are generally secondary sources.
Is a biography a primary source?: Biographies are generally secondary sources as they present information about the life of someone else. The author will likely consult primary sources to compose the biography, such as personal letters, archival records (e.g., birth registries), or diaries. In contrast, an autobiography is a primary source as it is a firsthand account of one’s own life.

However, if you are researching the ways in which a particular figure’s life has been represented, then biographies written about the person would function as primary sources.

Any time a biography or other source is used, it must be accompanied by a citation and reference entry to avoid plagiarism. You can use QuillBot’s Citation Generator to automatically generate citations for all types of sources.
Is a newspaper article a primary or secondary source?: Newspaper and magazine articles can function as primary or secondary sources depending on how you use them for your research.

In a historical study, for example, you might use contemporary newspaper articles as direct evidence of the time period. In social and communication studies, you might examine the language or content of an article to glean insights into the particular phenomenon under study (e.g., through a content analysis or discourse analysis).

If you are using an article to furnish background information or facts about the topic, the article functions as a secondary source.

Any articles you use should be cited appropriately and included in your references list. You can use QuillBot’s Citation Generator to automatically generate citations for all types of sources.
What makes a source credible?: Sources can be vetted using the CRAAP test as well as checked for the following points to ensure credibility:

Updated information

Trustworthy publisher and author with relevant credentials for the topic

Cited materials should be able to be consulted and unbiased

Online sources should have a trustworthy URL and layout

Quillbot’s Citation Generator tool can help you to create and manage your citations throughout the research process. Additionally, you can use our Notepad tool to take online notes and keep track of relevant source information.
When do I need to cite sources?: You should always include a citation for the sources you use to support any academic text.

In-text citations must accompany any material that is quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. The in-text citation should direct the reader to the full reference entry in the references list or bibliography.

The format of your citations and reference entries is determined by the citation style you are using (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).

Quillbot’s Citation Generator can help you to create and manage your citations throughout the research process.
Is Wikipedia a credible source?: Wikipedia is not generally considered a credible source on its own. This is because Wikipedia is an open-access platform that anyone can edit at any time. Thus, while Wikipedia can be helpful when just starting out in your research, it should not be cited among your sources in your final paper.

However, you can use the references cited in Wikipedia articles to access the research materials the articles are based on. If a Wikipedia article cites academic sources such as journal articles, go directly to these sources to perform more in-depth research. These sources can be used to support your paper.
Can I use tertiary sources in my research?: Tertiary sources are generally not cited directly in academic writing. However, they can be useful as a jumping-off point when you begin the research process.

When you’re starting your research, you can use tertiary sources to:

Collect background information

Pick out keywords and terms

Learn current views on the topic

Identify key figures whose work may be useful to you

Tertiary sources can direct you to primary and secondary sources that you can use later during the writing process.
How do I tell if a source is tertiary?: Your research problem and the way you use a source will determine whether it is tertiary.

The following questions can help you evaluate whether something is a tertiary source:

Is the source itself the object of analysis (primary or secondary), or does it only provide background information (tertiary)?

Does the source give a firsthand account or original data (primary) or interpret other sources (secondary)? Or does it list or summarize information from other sources (tertiary)?
How are tertiary sources different from primary and secondary sources?: Primary sources involve original research with novel findings or provide firsthand evidence (e.g., photographs, records, official documents).

Secondary sources offer analyses or interpretations of primary source evidence or findings (e.g., journal articles, reviews).

Tertiary sources are reference works that use primary and secondary sources to provide an overview of the topic (e.g., databases, dictionaries).
How do I use signal phrases?: Signal phrases have a variety of functions. They can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

When using signal phrases to integrate another author’s ideas, words, or data, include:

The name of the scholar(s) or study

An attributive tag (e.g., “has proposed,” “has asserted”)

The quote or paraphrased material

The verb tense you use in your signal phrase depends on the style guide you are following.

APA Style uses the past tense or present perfect tense

MLA and Chicago use the simple present tense
Why do I need to use signal phrases?: Signal phrases are used to attribute information to the original source. This is important as it enables you to:

Establish the credibility of the information presented

Underscore your knowledge of the field and relevant arguments

Place your work into conversation with other researchers’ findings

Avoid committing plagiarism
What are good signal phrases?: The type of signal phrase you use provides information about your or the original author’s position on the point presented. Signal phrases can indicate agreement, disagreement, doubt, and other relationships between authors’ stances.

Common signal phrases to indicate agreement include “confirms” or “supports” (e.g., “Smith’s works confirms the prevailing view”).

Common signal phrases to indicate disagreement include “denies” or “refutes” (e.g., “Attorney Marta Resnick denies that there is any credible evidence pointing to her client”).

Neutral signal phrases include “states” or “observes” (e.g., “Liu and Gray observe that …”).
What is the definition of peer review?: Academic journals use peer review processes to evaluate submissions for publication. Experts in the subject area use defined criteria to measure the quality of a text and determine suitability for publication.

The peer review process results in high-quality publications, which is why academic journals are often considered the most credible sources.

If a source doesn’t use a peer review process, you can use the CRAAP test to determine whether it is credible.
What does accuracy mean in the CRAAP test?: The “Accuracy” component of the CRAAP test for evaluating sources refers to whether the information in a source is correct, factually based, and supported by evidence. Consider where the information has come from and the source itself. For example, was it published by a reputable source, and are you able to verify the claims?
What does relevance mean in the CRAAP test?: The “Relevance” component of the CRAAP test for evaluating sources refers to whether the information in a source is related to your research subject. Consider if the information adds something to your argument and whether the information is intended for a specialized audience.
What types of sources do academic researchers use?: Researchers use many different types of sources, including:

Books

Journals

Websites

Encyclopedias

Newspapers

The types of source you use might change as you make progress through the research process.
Is there a difference between scholarly and popular sources?: Scholarly sources are written by experts in the field of study using technical or academic language. Very often they are peer-reviewed before publication, and they will always have a full bibliography. They are usually considered to be credible sources.

Popular sources are written for a more general audience. They are most likely to be written by journalists and may not have a bibliography. Their language is generally less formal, and they might be written from a biased point of view. This means that these types of sources are not always reliable, but can still be used and cited if appropriate to your research.
Where can I find scholarly sources?: Knowing how to find the credible sources you need is important when conducting research.

Check with the library at your institution to see what journals, books, research databases, and other types of sources they can give you access to.

Search for publications from respected academic publishers and university presses, as these have a reputation for being trustworthy scholarly sources.

Search for journals that use a peer review process. They are more credible as experts have reviewed the research before publication.
What are the main types of sources cited by academic researchers?: Academic researchers use a range of credible sources in their works. They will typically cite only their primary and secondary sources. The main types of sources are:

Books

Academic journals

Websites

Encyclopedias

Newspapers

Your research process is likely to include many of these types of scholarly sources, although the sources used will vary according to the goals and topic of your research.
How can I decide if a source is relevant to my research?: When evaluating sources, do a preliminary evaluation of each source before you invest time in an in-depth evaluation:

Find the table of contents to assess the scope of the work

Scan the abstract, preface, introduction, and conclusion

Look through the index for important terms and names of relevant scholars.
What is vertical reading?: When evaluating sources, vertical reading means reading a source (e.g., a website) to evaluate its credibility.

This is contrasted with lateral reading, which means researching what has been written about the source elsewhere in order to help you evaluate its credibility (e.g., searching for references to a website on other websites that you trust).
How do I search research databases efficiently?: Make sure you have a clear idea of the parameters of your research and the key terms you want to search. Then choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Cochrane, JSTOR, Medline).

Use specific keywords and their variations and synonyms when searching for scholarly sources.

Some databases have a “subject search” option, which can be useful. Become familiar with Boolean operators to efficiently combine keywords, search for exact phrases, and exclude specific terms.
What is a Boolean search?: A Boolean search uses Boolean operators (e.g., “AND,” “NOT”) and keywords to narrow or expand search results. You can use Boolean searches to:

Search exact keywords

Search keyword variations

Prioritize keywords

Exclude keywords
What are proximity operators and how do I use them?: Proximity operators, such as NEAR (Nx), WITHIN (Wx), and SENTENCE, can be used along with keywords to filter for results that include the keywords within a certain proximity to each other.

Different proximity operators are used to obtain different results. For example, Wx identifies sources where the keywords occur within a specific number of words (x) of each other and in the order listed.
What are critical thinking skills?: Some important critical thinking skills are:

Identifying credible sources

Using relevant criteria to test hypotheses

Evaluating arguments and responding to them

Assessing alternative opinions
How can I assess information critically?: Using the CRAAP test will help you to assess information critically. This focuses on the currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose of the information source.

Good questions to ask include:

Who is the author? Do they have expertise in the field?

How does the author make their argument? Do they back it up with evidence?

Why did they publish the information? What are their purpose and motivation?
What does an APA in-text citation for a website look like?: APA in-text citations for online articles or websites include the author’s last name and publication year: (Patel, 2020). Often, the author is an organization: (National Institutes of Health, 2022).

When citing a quotation, you should include some type of locator. This could be a paragraph number (Patel, 2020, para. 10) or section title (Patel, 2020, Future Plans section).

For further information, read our guide on APA website citations.
How do I cite a source with no page numbers in APA Style?: APA in-text citations for quotations of specific text must include a locator. When no page numbers are available (e.g., when citing a website), you can use paragraph numbers or heading names (or a combination) instead: (Cordero, 2021, Key Facts section, para. 3).

When you paraphrase or summarize a source in APA writing, you do not need to include any locator information.

You can keep track of source information with QuillBot’s free notepad online to ensure your citations are accurate.
How do I cite a source with no author in APA Style?: Often, when there is no individual author listed, the source can be attributed to an organization or agency (e.g., a report, a press release, a company’s website). In these cases, the organization name can be used in place of the author in both the APA in-text citation and APA reference page.

If there is no individual or organizational author (as is the case with some website sources), the title can be used instead. In the in-text citation, long titles can be shortened, and they can be formatted as in the reference list (i.e., either in italics or in quotation marks).

You can keep track of source information with QuillBot’s free notepad online to ensure your citations are accurate.
When should I include an access date in an APA citation?: Access dates are not normally required in APA Style in-text citations or references. They are never needed for online journal articles or ebooks.

But, if you create an APA citation for a website that is likely to be updated in the future, you should include an access date. For example:

The University of Texas at Arlington. (n.d.) Our alumni make history. Retrieved May 9, 2024, from www.uta.edu/about/alumni
How do you cite page numbers in an APA reference list?: In an APA reference list, page numbers are typically included for journal articles and chapters in edited works. APA book citations and APA website citations typically do not include page numbers.

APA reference entry examples

Journal article Ferrand, C. (2002, December). Harmonics-to-noise ratio. Journal of Voice, 16(4), 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0892-1997(02)00123-6

Chapter in an edited book Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of persuasion. In M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (4th ed., pp. 115–129). Routledge.

The two numbers in a page range are connected using an en dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can automatically create APA Style references for you.
What should be italicized in APA 7th edition references?: In APA references, the titles of books, webpages, and reports are italicized, as are the titles and volume numbers of journals and other periodicals.

The titles of articles or book chapters are not italicized.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can automatically create APA Style references for you.
What do you capitalize in article titles in APA references?: APA Style uses sentence-style capitalization for article titles in the reference list, which means only the first word and any proper nouns are capitalized (e.g., “Language production and serial order”).

Sentence-style capitalization is also used for book and webpage titles.

However, for the titles of journals, headline-style capitalization is used. This means all words except prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are capitalized (e.g., Journal of Communications Technology and Electronics).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can automatically create APA Style references for you.
When should I use et al. in citations?: How you use “et al.” in citations depends on the style guide you are using.

In MLA, “et al.” is used both for in-text citations and the Works Cited page when a source has three or more authors.

In APA 6th edition, works with three to five authors are listed using “et al.” after the first citation. In APA 7th edition, works with three or more authors are listed using “et al.” from the first in-text citation.

In Chicago style, works with four or more authors are listed using “et al.” from the first citation.
When should I use et al. in APA in-text citations?: When to use et al. in APA in-text citations depends on which edition of the APA Publication Manual you are using.

In APA 6th edition, works with three to five authors are listed using “et al.” after the first citation.

Example: “Freeman, Taylor, and Werg (2024) reject this hypothesis. Instead, their data indicates that the opposite is true (Freeman et al., 2024).”

In APA 7th edition, works with three or more authors are listed using “et al.” after the first author’s name from the first citation.

Example: “Freeman et al. (2024) reject this hypothesis.”

You can keep track of all relevant source information with QuillBot’s free notepad online.
How do I cite a source with multiple authors in MLA?: In MLA, “et al.” is used both for in-text citations and the Works Cited page when a source has three or more authors.

Example: Some critics agree that the symbolism is difficult to decipher (Ruiz et al. 190).
How do I cite a source with multiple authors in Chicago?: The guidelines to cite a source with multiple authors in Chicago depend on whether the source has 2 authors, 3–6 authors, or 7+ authors.

For 2 authors, include both authors’ names in the bibliography entry and all notes.

For 3–6 authors, include all authors’ names in the bibliography. In the notes, include the first author’s name followed by “et. al.”

For 7 or more authors, include the first three authors’ names and et al. in the bibliography. In the notes, include the first author’s name with “et al.”

When you’re writing Chicago style citations for journal articles or other types of sources, QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you avoid errors. Additionally, our Notepad can help you take notes online and keep track of relevant source information for citations.
How do I use ibid. in my writing?: “Ibid.” is included only in footnotes or endnotes and should not be used as an in-text citation. Additionally, not all style guides (e.g., APA, MLA) permit the use of “ibid.”

Once you have included the full citation for a source, “ibid.” can be used to refer back to that source in the next citation. It cannot be used if there are other intervening citations.

Every source you reference in your academic writing should be cited correctly. QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you cite sources correctly, and our online Plagiarism Checker can help ensure your writing is free of accidental plagiarism.
Can I use ibid. in Chicago style?: Chicago style still permits the use of “ibid.,” but the use of short notes is preferred. In either case, the choice to use “ibid.” or short notes should be consistent.

In any case, every source you reference in your academic writing should be cited correctly. QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you cite sources correctly, and our online Plagiarism Checker can help ensure your writing is free of accidental plagiarism.
Can I use ibid. in APA Style?: APA Style, like MLA style, does not permit the use of “ibid.” Both MLA and APA Style use in-text parenthetical citations, and footnotes are used only to add further information, not for citations.

Regardless of the citation style you use, every source you reference in your academic writing should be cited correctly. QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you cite sources correctly, and our online Plagiarism Checker can help ensure your writing is free of accidental plagiarism.
How do you create an APA in-text citation for multiple authors?: If there are two authors, separate their names with an ampersand (&). If there are three or more authors, list the first author’s name, followed by “et al.” Do not include a comma between the first author’s name and “et al.”

Examples: (Smith & Robinson, 2022, pp. 67–69)

(Smith et al., 2022, p. 43)
How do you create an APA in-text citation with no author?: To create an APA in-text citation for a source with an unknown author, use the title of the text in place of an author’s last name. Italicize the title of books, but use quotation marks around the title for articles and chapters.

Example: (“In-Text Citations,” 2024)
What is “et al” in an in-text citation?: “Et al.” means “and others.” It is used to save space in in-text citations when citing a source with three or more authors; you use it after the first author’s name in place of the remaining names.
What is paraphrasing plagiarism?: Paraphrasing plagiarism happens when someone paraphrases an outside source in a piece of writing without giving credit to the original source.

When you paraphrase ideas from outside sources in your own words, you must show where that information came from in order to avoid plagiarism. Sentences that have paraphrased information should include in-text citations.

An in-text citation includes the author’s name at a minimum, and depending on the citation style you’re using, it might include other elements such as a year of publication or a page number.

For example, APA in-text citations for paraphrases should include the author and year of publication.

Paraphrasing plagiarism example

According to a recent survey, nearly half of dog owners in the U.S. said that they are unlikely to purchase pet insurance in the near future.

According to Megna (2024), nearly half of dog owners in the U.S. said that they are unlikely to purchase pet insurance in the near future.

You can avoid paraphrasing plagiarism by using QuillBot’s free Plagiarism Checker to look for paraphrases in your writing that need citations.
How can I paraphrase a source without plagiarizing?: You can paraphrase a source without plagiarizing by following both of these steps.

Write the information in your own words without using the same phrases and sentences from the original source.

Give credit to the source you paraphrased with an in-text citation. For example, APA citations for paraphrases should include the author and year of publication.

Paraphrase a source without plagiarizing example
Sentences from the original source: Approximately 63 percent of survey participants from Generation Z (born in 2000 or later) stated that they do not drink coffee at all.

APA style paraphrase: According to Ridder (2023), almost two-thirds of adults born after 2000 reported that they never drink coffee.

If you need help paraphrasing a source without plagiarizing, QuillBot’s free Paraphraser can reword excerpts from outside sources. QuillBot’s free Plagiarism Checker will help you find paraphrases in your writing that need in-text citations.
When should you paraphrase information instead of using a direct quote?: You should paraphrase information instead of using a direct quote when the information that you’re sharing with your readers is more important than the original source’s style of writing.

Use paraphrases to share facts and statistics from outside sources. In this situation, the original author’s wording is less important than the information. Paraphrasing helps you maintain your own writing voice.

Use direct quotes from outside sources in these situations:

When the information is worded so creatively that you can’t express the author’s full intended meaning by paraphrasing

When your purpose is to analyze another piece of writing (e.g., a poem or novel), in which case, direct quotes are evidence of the writer’s style, word choices, or use of literary devices

Whether you paraphrase or quote another writer’s ideas, use in-text citations to avoid plagiarism.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create in-text citations for direct quotes and paraphrases.
Do you have to cite a paraphrase?: You always have to cite a paraphrase in order to avoid plagiarism.

An in-text citation helps your readers differentiate between your original ideas and other writers’ ideas.

The format for in-text citations varies by each citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, or Chicago). In MLA writing, in-text citations should include the author’s last name and the page number where the information is located in the original source.

Citing a paraphrase MLA example
In the summer of 1970, Janis Joplin participated in a train tour across Canada that was called the Transcontinental Pop Festival and included over a dozen musical acts (George-Warren 298).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you cite a paraphrase in your writing.
What is the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing?: The main difference between paraphrasing and summarizing is that paraphrasing involves rewording part of an outside source, but summarizing involves describing what an entire source is mainly about.

A paraphrase rephrases a specific fact, statistic, or idea from an outside source that you’re using as evidence in academic writing.

A summary is a synopsis that describes the main topic and key points of a complete text (e.g., an article) in order to give your readers context about why the source is significant. Summaries are common in literature reviews and annotated bibliographies.

To avoid plagiarism, use your own words anytime you paraphrase or summarize an article or other source and give credit to the original source with a signal phrase or an in-text citation.

If you need help with paraphrasing and summarizing, QuillBot’s free Paraphrasing Tool can reword ideas from another source. QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can also help you create in-text citations.
How do you use Chicago style citations?: Chicago style has two citation formats: notes and bibliography and author-date.

Notes and bibliography is the more common format. In it, footnotes are used in the body of the text, and a bibliography is included at the end. A full note is used the first time a source is cited and a shortened note (with only author, title, and page number) thereafter.

Chicago style citation examples

Full footnote
1. Robin Wall Kimmerer, Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses (Penguin UK, 2021), 22–25.

Shortened footnote
2. Kimmerer, Gathering Moss, 22–25.

Bibliographic entry
Kimmerer, Robin Wall. Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. Penguin UK, 2021.

In author-date format, parenthetical citations are used instead of footnotes. The in-text citation includes the author’s last name and date (e.g., Kimmerer 2021). A full bibliography is included at the end.

QuillBot’s Online Notepad can help you keep track of all relevant source information.
What are APA capitalization rules?: APA capitalization rules depend on what part of a paper you are writing. In the body of the text, standard capitalization rules should be followed (e.g., capitalize proper nouns and lowercase common nouns).

For titles of works and headings, APA Style uses two types of capitalization:

In title case, all words are capitalized except for articles and prepositions and conjunctions of three letters or fewers.

In sentence case, only the first word and any proper nouns are capitalized.

Title case vs sentence case in APA Style

Use Examples

Title case Titles of articles, books, and other works in the body of the text Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams was a seminal influence …

The title of the paper itself Depression and Anxiety in Students Experiencing Homelessness

Headings and figure and table titles Theoretical Background

Titles of journals and other periodicals on the reference page Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Sentence case Titles of articles, books, reports, and webpages on the reference page Stellar, J. E., & Willer, R. (2018). Unethical and inept? The influence of moral information on perceptions of competence. […]

Table column headings and entries, table and figure notes Number of participants
What is the APA page number format for in-text citations?: The APA page number format for in-text citations is (author, date, p. xx) or (p. xx) depending on whether you’re using a parenthetical or a narrative in-text citation.

APA only requires page numbers for direct quotations. Page numbers are optional for paraphrasing and summarizing.

When you quote and cite a book in APA style (or any other paginated source), the page number or page range (if the quotation spans two pages) should look like these examples.

APA book citation
Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explained, “First impressions are crucial—if either the dog or cat is spooked during their first actual physical encounter, later meetings are less likely to go well” (p. 150).

Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explained, “Cats instinctively like to go into small spaces because they feel secure there, and their exceptional agility means that they know that if they have to, they can quickly make their escape” (pp. 179–180).

QuillBot’s free APA Citation Generator can help you quote and cite page numbers correctly in APA format.
What are the guidelines for APA title capitalization?: APA title capitalization can be sentence case or title case depending on the type of source and where you’re using the title in the document.

Title case means that you capitalize the first word, major words (e.g., “job” or “parents”), and all minor words that are four letters or longer (e.g., “with”), but not minor words like “at” or “the.”

Sentence case means that you only capitalize the words that you’d capitalize in a sentence—the first word, proper nouns, and the first word after a colon.

When you mention a title within the prose of your document, always use title case (e.g., “The Paradox of Stay-at-Home Parents” in The Atlantic).

In reference list entries, use sentence case for any work that’s contained within a larger source (such as a journal article) as well as self-contained works (e.g., books or websites). The following is an example of a reference entry for a book in APA style.

APA book reference entry example
Bradshaw, J., & Ellis, S. (2016). The trainable cat: A practical guide to making life happier for you and your cat. Basic Books.

Use title case for the titles of periodicals (e.g., journals) in reference list entries, such as this example for a journal article in APA.

APA journal article reference entry example
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

QuillBot’s free APA Citation Generator can help you follow APA guidelines for title capitalization in your own writing.
What is a DOI in an APA reference list entry?: A DOI in an APA reference list entry is a string of numbers and letters that has been assigned to an article or book. It’s also a hyperlink that readers can follow to see more publication details.

“DOI” is an acronym that stands for “Digital Object Identifier.” Almost every scholarly source has a DOI, even books and journal articles that were written before the DOI system started.

The DOI goes at the end of the reference list entry, like this example for a book in APA.

APA book reference entry example
Lengua, L. J., & Gartstein, M. A. (2024). Parenting with temperament in mind: Navigating your child’s strengths. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/1.1037/0000407-000

QuillBot’s free APA Citation Generator can help you create reference list entries with DOIs. QuillBot’s writing pad online can help you keep track of all relevant source information to ensure your citations are accurate.
Does MLA use footnotes or endnotes?: MLA uses footnotes or endnotes as optional ways to share additional information with readers without interrupting the flow of ideas. MLA footnotes and endnotes are not for documenting sources like MLA in-text citations.

Footnotes go at the bottom of each page, and endnotes go on a separate page entitled “Notes” before the Works Cited page. Books and academic journals in MLA style use endnotes.

For both systems, a superscript number in the text directs readers to a corresponding note with the same number.

MLA footnotes or endnotes examples
Superscript number in the text:

In the long term, regenerative practices can improve profits for small family farms by minimizing equipment and supply costs.⁵

Endnote/footnote:

⁵ See also Jones 144-45 and Xiao 23-27 for additional perspectives on regenerative agriculture.

MLA accepts either system as long as the document stays consistent with just one of them. (You can use footnotes or endnotes, but not both in the same document.)

When you’re writing footnotes or endnotes, QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can help you avoid errors.
What’s the difference between a footnote and an endnote?: The difference between a footnote and an endnote is the location in a document.

Footnotes go in the footer of the same page of the main text that includes the corresponding superscript numbers. Endnotes go together on a separate page after the main text (e.g., right before or after the bibliography depending on the style requirements).

Footnotes and endnotes have different uses in Chicago, MLA, and APA style writing. They can provide supplemental information in any of these three styles, but they’re also citations in Chicago style writing (e.g., Chicago book citations).

APA footnotes and MLA footnotes and endnotes are never used for citations.

When you’re writing footnotes or endnotes, QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can help you avoid errors. QuillBot’s free Chicago Citation Generator can also help you instantly cite sources.
How do you write a journal or article title in MLA?: To write a journal article title in MLA, capitalize the following words:

The first and last word

The first word after a colon

All principal words, which include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions

Do not capitalize prepositions (e.g., “before” or “between”), coordinating conjunctions, or “to” when it’s part of an infinitive unless any of these are the first or last word of the title or the first word after a colon.

Also place article titles in quotation marks. For the title of the journal that contains the article, use the same capitalization rules and italics rather than quotation marks.

These guidelines apply to MLA journal article citations and any titles within an MLA document.

MLA journal article reference example
Chakravarty, Devpirya. “Popular Musics of India: An Ethnomusicological Review.” Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, vol. 6, no. 3, Dec. 2019, pp. 111-22. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48710235.

You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to create Works Cited entries and in-text citations for journal articles.
Do you italicize article titles in MLA?: Do not italicize article titles in MLA writing. Instead, place article titles in quotation marks (e.g., “Quincy Jones’s Legacy in 14 Essential Songs”).

Do italicize the titles of journals, magazines, and newspapers that contain individual articles (e.g., The New York Times).

These guidelines apply to MLA journal article citations and MLA style prose (e.g., a sentence in an essay that mentions an article title).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you format journal article titles correctly on a Works Cited page.
When do you need a page number in an MLA website citation?: You only need a page number in an MLA website citation when the source has numbered pages.

Most MLA website citations don’t have page numbers because websites don’t usually have numbered pages. MLA in-text citations for sources without numbered pages only include the author.

You can cite the author in the narrative of the sentence or in parentheses at the end of the sentence, like this example (Currin).

If you’re citing a PDF version of a report from a website, include the author and the page number of the information you’re quoting or paraphrasing, like this example (Carr 5).

Works Cited entries for websites, whether they’re paginated or not, don’t need page numbers.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you write correct MLA website citations.
How do you write a website title in MLA?: To write a website title in MLA, use quotation marks for the page or article title and italics for the website name.

For both titles, capitalize all of the principal words (e.g., nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions).

Don’t capitalize minor words, which include prepositions (e.g., “above” or “between”), coordinating conjunctions, or “to” when it’s part of an infinitive unless any of these words are the first or last word of the website name or the first word after a colon.

Website titles in MLA website citations don’t need “.com” or other details from the URL.

MLA website title example
Krebs, Eric. “No Matter Who Wins, the Real Work of Sustainability Will Continue.” Reasons to Be Cheerful, 31 Oct. 2024, reasonstobecheerful.world/no-matter-who-wins-sustainability-energy/.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you use correct capitalization and formatting in MLA website citations.
How do you cite a government website in MLA?: To cite a government website in MLA, begin the Works Cited entry with the name of the country, the department name, and then the committee or division name if applicable. Separate each part of the government with a comma.

The rest of the Works Cited entry should have the title of the page/article/report in quotation marks, the website name in italics, the publication date, and the URL.

The in-text MLA website citation should include the name of the government department and a page number if there are numbered pages to cite. If there aren’t numbered pages, only cite the department name, which you can also abbreviate.

MLA government websites examples
Works Cited entry:

United States, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2023.” BLS Reports, Aug. 2024, bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-earnings/2023/home.htm.

In-text citation:

(US Dept. of Labor)

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create correct citations for government websites.
How do you write a book title in MLA?: When you write a book title in MLA, use italics and capitalize all of the principal words—nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions.

Also capitalize the first and last words and the first word after a colon. Minor words, such as prepositions (e.g., “over” or “under”) and coordinating conjunctions (e.g., “and” or “but”) should not be capitalized.

The following MLA book citation example shows how to format a title.

MLA book citation example
Gladwell, Malcolm. Revenge of the Tipping Point: Overstories, Superspreaders, and the Rise of Social Engineering. Little, Brown, 2024.

You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to format titles correctly in MLA writing and Works Cited entries.
When should I cite a book chapter in MLA?: Cite a book chapter in MLA when each chapter has a different author listed in the table of contents and/or on the first page of each chapter.

In MLA book citations for chapters in edited books, include the chapter author and a page range in each in-text citation (Smith 234). In the Works Cited entry, include the following details.

Name, First and Middle (if the middle name is part of the byline). “Chapter/Story/Essay/Poem Title.” Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name(s), nth ed., vol. x, Publisher, Year, Page range.

(An edition or volume number before the page range is only necessary if the book has multiple editions/volumes.)

MLA book chapter citation example
Roy, Ashok, and Kogan, Cary S. “Disorders of Intellectual Development and Developmental Learning Disorder.” A Psychological Approach to Diagnosis: Using the ICD-11 as a Framework, edited by Geoffrey M. Reed et al., American Psychological Association, 2024, pp. 41-60.

You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to create Works Cited entries and in-text citations for chapters in edited books.
What is a journal article?: A journal article is a type of scholarly source that is common in academic writing. Journals are periodicals, which means that they are published multiple times per year (like magazines).

Each journal is focused on a specific aspect of a larger academic field. For example, within the broader field of nursing, there are scholarly journals about nursing education, intensive care nursing, cardiovascular nursing, and many other subcategories.

Each issue of a journal includes multiple articles by different authors. Journal articles often focus on original research experiments.

If you quote, paraphrase, or summarize journal articles in your writing, follow the format for APA style journal article citations, MLA citations, or whichever citation format you’re using.

You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to create journal article citations.
When should I include a DOI or URL in an APA citation?: The following guidelines will help you correctly include a DOI or URL in APA style journal article citations or APA book citations.

DOIs and URLs are sometimes necessary in reference entries but never in in-text citations.

For all sources that have DOIs, put the DOI at the end of the reference entry. The DOI should be a hyperlink that readers can follow for more details about the publication.

If a DOI isn’t listed on the source, you can usually search for the DOI online. If you confirm that a source doesn’t have a DOI, you can omit it from the references entry.

Only include a URL (in place of a DOI) for journal articles that don’t have DOIs and that you accessed on the journal’s homepage.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you use DOIs and URLs correctly in your APA reference entries.
What’s the MLA format for a poem title?: The MLA format for a poem title is to use quotation marks around the title and to capitalize all of the principal words. Capitalize nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions.

Minor words, such as prepositions (e.g., “behind” or “with”) and coordinating conjunctions (e.g., “and” or “but”) should not be capitalized unless they’re the first or last word of the title or the first word after a colon.

The guidelines apply to MLA poetry citations on the Works Cited page and any titles that you mention in the main text.

You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to format poem titles correctly in MLA writing and Works Cited entries.
What are the MLA month abbreviations?: MLA month abbreviations are part of the MLA date format for Works Cited entries.

When a Works Cited entry includes a publication date or access date, MLA requires abbreviations for all months that are longer than four letters. The MLA abbreviations are Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec.

These abbreviations do not apply to the heading or the main text, where MLA requires the full month names (e.g., “February 14, 2025”).

When you’re writing MLA Works Cited entries, QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you format months and dates correctly.
When do you abbreviate months in MLA format?: Abbreviate months in MLA format for publication dates or access dates in Works Cited entries. MLA requires abbreviations for all months except May, June, and July.

The abbreviations for MLA date format are Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec.

MLA month abbreviation example

Studach, Mel. “Inside SNL Star Heidi Gardner’s Midcentury

Home, a Disco Fantasy Come True.” Architectural Digest, 29 Oct. 2024, www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/heidi-gardner-inside-the-snl-stars-midcentury-disco-fantasy.

Don’t abbreviate months in the heading or main text of an MLA document (e.g., “Harry Potter was born on July 31, 1980.”)

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you format months and dates correctly in MLA Works Cited entries.
How do you write time in MLA format?: Write time in MLA format to create a time stamp for in-text citations of audio and video sources (e.g, a movie or a song). The format is hh:mm:ss (hour:minute:second) with a colon between each element.

MLA time stamp example
The video tour of the actress’s new home includes a close-up shot of a brass door knocker in the shape of a lion’s head (“Inside SNL Star” 00:01:47-49).

This in-text citation has an abbreviated title of the video (because there’s no author) and a timestamp, which directs readers to the 1 minute and 47 seconds spot of the video.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create time stamps and use MLA date format in Works Cited entries.
How do you cite a source with no date in MLA?: To cite a source with no date in MLA, write a Works Cited entry that includes an access date instead of a publication date.

The access date goes at the end of a Works Cited entry, followed by a period.

MLA source with no date example

Semtner, Christopher P. “12 Stories behind Edgar Allen Poe’s Terror Tales.” Biography, biography.com/authors-writers/edgar-allan-poe-horror-stories-facts. Accessed 5 Nov. 2024.

The access date should follow MLA date format for Works Cited entries (day-month-year with abbreviations for months longer than four letters).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you format access dates correctly in MLA Works Cited entries.
What’s the date format for an MLA header?: The date format for an MLA header is either day-month-year or month-day-year. MLA accepts either of these formats, but it also requires you to spell out the full name of the month in your heading.

If you use month-day-year format, place a comma between the day and year.

MLA heading examples
Saanvi Mehta

Professor Bennett

Composition I

30 September 2024

Grace Eldridge

Professor Rivera

Sociology 101

October 15, 2024

If you include dates in the main text of your paper, use the same MLA date format that you chose for your heading.

QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can help you proofread MLA documents to ensure that they’re error free.
How do you write movie titles in MLA?: When you write movie titles in MLA, use italics, and capitalize all of the main words, which include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions.

Minor words, such as prepositions (e.g., “behind” or “with”) and coordinating conjunctions (e.g., “and” or “but”) should not be capitalized unless they’re the first or last word of the title or the first word after a colon.

Movie title examples
It Ends with Us

Kingdom of the Planet of the Apes

The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King

Use these guidelines in MLA movie citations or when you mention a film in the main text.

QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can also help you format movie titles correctly.
How long is an abstract?: An abstract is usually 150–250 words long. It’s a paragraph on a separate page before an essay or article. The maximum length for an APA abstract is 250 words. To write an abstract that is the right length, summarize your main topic and key arguments or findings in a few sentences.

When you’re writing abstracts, QuillBot’s free Paraphrasing Tool can help you write concisely and choose the best words.
What’s the difference between an abstract and an introduction?: An abstract is a standalone document that’s separate from an essay or journal article. It summarizes the entire content of the essay or article so that readers can decide if they should read the full text. An APA abstract should be a maximum of 250 words.

An introduction prepares readers for the body paragraphs of an essay or article. Rather than summarizing all of the essay or article’s contents, an introduction hooks the reader, provides essential background information, and states the thesis.

QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can help you create abstracts that are polished, professional, and error-free.
How do you cite a government report in APA?: To cite a government report in APA, start by looking for the author, which can be one or more people, a division of a larger government agency, or the government agency at large. Then, you’ll need the following details for an APA reference page entry:

Year of publication

Title of the report (which goes in italics and sentence case)

Name of the government agency that published the report (If the at-large organization is the author, omit the publisher slot. If the author is a division, the larger agency is the publisher.)

URL for the report

APA government report references examples

Author type Reference entry

Individual(s)
Eaves, S. (2024, October 28). Lead in private well water and its impacts on children’s health. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/perspectives/lead-private-well-water-and-its-impacts-childrens-health

Division of a government agency
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024). Highlight of women’s earnings in 2023. U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-earnings/2023/home.htm

Government agency at large
Canada Council for the Arts. (2024). 2023–24 annual report. https://canadacouncil.ca/-/media/Files/CCA/Corporate/Annual-Reports/en/2023-24_Annual-Report.pdf

Each time you paraphrase an idea from a government report, an APA in-text citation should include the author (whether it’s a person or the government organization) and the year of publication. Citations for quotations need page numbers as well.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create APA PDF citations and other types of citations. Additionally, our Notepad can help you take online notes to keep track of the sources you consult.
How do you cite a PDF with no author in APA?: To cite a PDF with no author in APA, look for the professional organization or government agency that published the report or document. A PDF that doesn’t attribute one or more people as the author has a group author.

APA PDF citations often include an organization as the author. Place the group author at the beginning of the APA reference page entry, and include the group author in each APA in-text citation.

If a division of a larger organization is responsible for the document, the division is the author, and the larger organization is the publisher.

If the organization at large is the author, omit the larger organization from the publisher slot of the reference entry.

APA PDF with group author examples

In-text citations Reference list entries

The World Health Organization (2019) advocated for including health care experts in national efforts to understand and address the impact of climate change on human health.
World Health Organization. (2019). WHO health and climate change survey report: Tracking global progress. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/329972/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.11-eng.pdf?sequence=1

The report described several ways in which classroom technology can support Universal Design for Learning (Office of Educational Technology, 2024).
Office of Educational Technology. (2024). A call to action for closing the digital access, design, and use divides: 2024 national educational technology plan. U.S. Department of Education. https://tech.ed.gov/files/2024/01/NETP24.pdf

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create flawless citations for PDFs and sources of all kinds. Additionally, our Notepad can help you take online notes to keep track of relevant source information.
How long is a block quote in MLA?: A block quote in MLA is five or more lines of prose on your page or four or more lines of poetry from the page where the poem was published.

To determine if you need block format for long quotations of prose, type the quotation in your document. If it’s more than four lines, use MLA block quote format:

Indent the quote ½ inch from the left margin instead of using quotation marks.

Place the MLA in-text citation after the final punctuation at the end of the quote.

MLA block quote example
According to an Architectural Digest article, Dolly Parton’s influence is so profound that scientists have named a lichen after her.

The Dolly Parton lichen can be found on branches of trees and shrubs at middle to high elevations in the Appalachians from Maine to Georgia. J. dollypartoniana lacks the endearing showiness of its namesake; it resembles an undersized, undercooked oatmeal raisin cookie. The specimens Lendemer and Allen were looking at were several centimeters in diameter, but J. dollypartoniana can form colonies a few meters across. (Casey 74)

QuillBot’s free MLA Citation Generator can help you create accurate in-text citations for block quotations.
How do you write a title in an APA film citation?: To write a title in an APA film citation on the references page, use italics and sentence case. Only capitalize the first word, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns.

APA film title example

APA film title example
Wardle, T. (Director). (2018). Three identical strangers [Film]. CNN Films.

These guidelines for titles in APA movie citations only apply to APA reference page entries. Film titles are not part of APA in-text citations.

If you mention a movie in the main text of a paper, use italics and title case (e.g., Three Identical Strangers). Capitalize all major words and minor words that are four letters or longer (e.g., “With”).

QuillBot’s Notepad can help you take notes online to keep track of relevant source information. You can also use QuillBot’s free Citation Generator to create APA film citations.
How do you cite a personal communication in APA?: To cite a personal communication in APA, omit a reference page entry, but include an APA in-text citation.

In sentences that quote or paraphrase the person you spoke with, include their name in a signal phrase. In parentheses, include the words “personal communication” and the date of the interview or conversation.

You can also put the interviewee’s name in parentheses with “personal communication” and the date.

APA personal communication citation examples
Licensed professional counselor Elena Jones (personal communication, July 1, 2023) described the impact of diet and exercise on mental health.

Another mental health provider believes that increasing protein and limiting refined sugars can improve mood and executive function (Wanda Hays, personal communication, July 15, 2023).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create impeccable citations for a variety of outside sources, including personal communications.
What’s the difference between APA and Chicago author-date citations?: The difference between APA and Chicago author-date citations is as follows:

APA in-text citations need an author, year, and page for quotations but not paraphrases. Chicago author-date citations (e.g., Chicago book citations) need the author, year, and page for both quotes and paraphrases.

APA requires “p.” before a page number, but Chicago style does not.

APA signal phrases use past-tense verbs, and Chicago requires present-tense verbs.

APA reference page entries use sentence case for book and article titles. Chicago reference entries use title case for all titles.

APA and Chicago author-date citations examples

APA Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explained, “First impressions are crucial—if either the dog or cat is spooked during their first actual physical encounter, later meetings are less likely to go well” (p. 150).

Chicago Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explain, “First impressions are crucial—if either the dog or cat is spooked during their first actual physical encounter, later meetings are less likely to go well” (150).

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create flawless citations in APA, Chicago author-date, or whichever citation style you’re using.
What is digital literacy in education?: Digital literacy in education is the ability of both students and teachers to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information digitally. Digital literacy in education is particularly important in blended learning contexts.

Some examples of digital literacy in education are:

Having classes via video call

Writing and submitting essays online

Extracting and analyzing data from an LMS

Teachers using a Plagiarism Checker to analyze suspicious work
Why is digital literacy important in the workplace?: Digital literacy is important in the workplace because nowadays nearly all jobs incorporate digital components.

Digital literacy is very important in the remote workplace. Mastering digital communication and collaboration tools is essential for remote teams. It’s also important for workplace security and protecting company information.

Digital literacy is also important for general workplace efficiency. Using digital tools makes many jobs easier and faster to do.

For example, running a QuillBot Grammar Check can help employees pick up on errors in their writing faster than most human eyes can.
How do you cite a PDF in Chicago style?: To cite a PDF in Chicago style, write a footnote for each sentence that quotes, summarizes, or paraphrases the PDF. Also write an entry for the bibliography page at the end of the document.

Chicago PDF citations are a form of Chicago website citations when PDFs are published online. However, the notes should have page numbers because PDFs have numbered pages (which is not the case for many websites).

Each footnote or endnote begins with a number that corresponds to a superscript number at the end of the sentence that quotes, summarizes, or paraphrases.

For the first full note, include the author, PDF title, website name, URL, and the page number where you got the information. If you cite the same PDF after that, write a short note with the author and title, which you can shorten if it’s more than four words.

The bibliography entry includes the author, PDF title, website name, and URL.

In both the bibliography and the first full note, use italics for the PDF title.

Chicago PDF citation examples

Bibliography example

Thomas, Paul. The Science of Reading Movement: The Never-Ending Debate and the Need for a Different Approach to Reading Instruction. National Education Policy Center. September, 2022.https://nepc.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/publications/PB%20Thomas_0.pdf.

Chicago full note example
8. Paul Thomas, The Science of Reading Movement: The Never-Ending Debate and the Need for a Different Approach to Reading Instruction, National Education Policy Center, September, 2022, https://nepc.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/publications/PB%20Thomas_0.pdf.

Chicago short note example
10. Thomas, Science of Reading.

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create clear and accurate Chicago PDF citations.
Is it lunch break or brake?: The correct spelling is lunch break (not lunch brake).

Deciding whether to spell it brake or break can be tricky; a “brake” is a device in a vehicle that slows it down (e.g., “I need to take my car to the shop to get the brakes checked”).

QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker will help you to avoid mixing up homophones like “brake” and “break” in your texts.
Do footnote numbers go after the period?: Footnote numbers go after the period of a sentence in the main text that applies to the information in the footnote—like this.² For example, in Chicago style writing, each sentence that needs a citation has a superscript number after the period.

These superscript numbers in the main text are also referred to as callout numbers. There is no space between the period and the superscript callout number.

Callout numbers can also go after a comma or before an em dash or closing parenthesis—like this³—when the footnote only applies to a phrase or clause in the sentence.

When you’re using footnotes for citations, QuillBot’s free Chicago Citation Generator can also help you avoid errors.
How do I add footnotes in Word?: To add footnotes in Word, follow these steps:

Place your cursor in the spot of the main text where the callout number should appear (e.g., after a sentence’s period).

Select the “References” tab in the top toolbar, and select “Insert Footnote.”

A numbered footnote will appear in the page’s footer, where you can adjust the formatting based on the style you’re using (e.g., APA footnotes, MLA footnotes, or Chicago style citations) and type the citation or note.

When you’re using footnotes for Chicago style citations, QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you cite your sources accurately.
Do footnotes count toward the word count?: Footnotes do not count toward the word count in most situations, but each instructor or publisher may have special requirements.

The maximum word count for school assignments usually only applies to the main text because footnotes contain either citations (in Chicago style) or supplemental information (in Chicago, MLA, or APA style writing).

APA footnotes and MLA footnotes are only for supplemental information, which should be kept to a minimum. For most school assignments, supplemental information isn’t necessary.

When you do need footnotes, QuillBot’s free Citation Generator and Grammar Checker can help you avoid errors.
Does APA use footnotes?: In rare situations, APA uses footnotes, but not for in-text citations like Chicago style writing.

APA footnotes are for providing extra content that would interrupt the flow of the main text (e.g., suggesting additional sources) or for giving copyright attribution for long quotations and excerpts.

For example, if a dissertation excerpts a copyrighted psychological assessment, a footnote should include the copyright holder’s name and copyright year. These notes are rarely necessary in undergraduate essay types.

When you’re writing APA footnotes, QuillBot’s free Paraphraser can help you write concisely and choose the best words.
What is an APA footnote citation?: There is no such thing as an APA footnote citation. APA uses parenthetical citations rather than footnotes to document outside sources. APA citations include the author and year of publication in parentheses—like this (Dreyfus, 2023).

An APA footnote is for supplemental information (e.g., suggestions for further reading) or copyright details for excerpted materials in the main text of your paper.

When an APA footnote includes information from another source, it should also include an APA in-text citation and an entry on the APA reference page.

APA footnote with a citation example
¹ Other general practitioner screening tools for Alzheimer’s include the Mini-Mental State Examination (Folstein et al., 1975) and the General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition (Brodaty et al., 2002).

When you’re writing APA footnotes that need APA citations, QuillBot’s free APA Citation Generator can help you avoid errors.
What is an endnote citation?: An endnote citation is a note in a Chicago style document that includes the author, title, and other publication details. Endnotes are located on a separate page, before the bibliography.

Each Chicago endnote citation corresponds to a superscript number in a sentence that paraphrases, summarizes, or quotes an outside source.

In APA or MLA writing, endnotes are never citations in and of themselves. They’re only for sharing supplemental information that would interrupt the flow of the main text.

However, when APA or MLA endnotes contain details from outside sources, they should have in-text citations just like the main text.

With the QuillBot Citation Generator, you can instantly create accurate Chicago style endnote citations. QuillBot’s Grammar Checker can also help you ensure that APA and MLA endnotes are error free.
What are endnotes used for?: Endnotes are used for citations or sharing supplemental details in Chicago style writing. Each endnote refers to a superscript number in the main text (e.g., following a sentence that paraphrases an outside source and therefore needs a citation).

In APA and MLA writing, endnotes are only used for sharing supplemental details (e.g., extra explanation that would interrupt the flow of the main text).

QuillBot’s Citation Generator can help you instantly generate accurate Chicago citations.
How do I convert footnotes to endnotes in Word?: To convert footnotes to endnotes in Word, follow these steps:

Open the “References” tab in the top toolbar.

Click the arrow in the bottom right corner of the Footnotes section to open the “Footnote and Endnote” pop-up.

Select “Convert” and then “Endnotes.”

When you’re writing endnotes and footnotes, QuillBot’s free Grammar Checker can help you avoid errors.
How do I cite the same source multiple times in AMA style?: To cite the same source multiple times in AMA style, follow these steps:

Number sources on the AMA reference page sequentially according to the first time each source is cited in your main text. For example, the first source you cite in text is “1,” the second is “2,” and so on.

Each source only needs one number and one reference entry no matter how many AMA in-text citations you have for the same source.

Each time you summarize, paraphrase, or quote each source, use the same number from the reference page in superscript at the end of the relevant sentence, phrase, or clause—like this example.4

QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you create accurate AMA references.
Do I include the author’s name in AMA in-text citations?: AMA doesn’t require writers to include the author’s name in AMA in-text citations. However, you can include the author’s name in a signal phrase if the name provides context.

AMA requires the last name(s) in signal phrases. For a source with two authors, use both last names (e.g., Kesey and Burroughs). For a source with three or more authors, use the first name with “et al” (e.g., Smith et al).

The AMA in-text citation—which is a superscript number that corresponds to a numbered reference entry—can be located after the author’s name, after the sentence’s end punctuation, or after closing quotation marks.

As a general rule, place superscript numbers at the end of the phrase, clause, or sentence that includes the information that applies to the citation like these examples:

Owens et al discussed socioeconomic barriers to psychotherapy,7 but this study focuses on emotional barriers.

The studies by Amani5 and Smith et al6 are also consistent with these findings.

Haidt discussed the importance of chores, projects, and free play for healthy child development.8

When you’re writing AMA citations and references, QuillBot’s free Citation Generator can help you avoid errors.

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Why is information literacy important?

Citation: Other interesting questions

Journal article	Ferrand, C. (2002, December). Harmonics-to-noise ratio. Journal of Voice, 16(4), 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0892-1997(02)00123-6
Chapter in an edited book	Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of persuasion. In M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (4th ed., pp. 115–129). Routledge.

Full footnote	1. Robin Wall Kimmerer, Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses (Penguin UK, 2021), 22–25.
Shortened footnote	2. Kimmerer, Gathering Moss, 22–25.
Bibliographic entry	Kimmerer, Robin Wall. Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. Penguin UK, 2021.

	Use	Examples
Title case	Titles of articles, books, and other works in the body of the text	Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams was a seminal influence …
	The title of the paper itself	Depression and Anxiety in Students Experiencing Homelessness
	Headings and figure and table titles	Theoretical Background
	Titles of journals and other periodicals on the reference page	Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Sentence case	Titles of articles, books, reports, and webpages on the reference page	Stellar, J. E., & Willer, R. (2018). Unethical and inept? The influence of moral information on perceptions of competence. […]
Sentence case	Table column headings and entries, table and figure notes	Number of participants

Author type	Reference entry
Individual(s)	Eaves, S. (2024, October 28). Lead in private well water and its impacts on children’s health. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/perspectives/lead-private-well-water-and-its-impacts-childrens-health
Division of a government agency	Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024). Highlight of women’s earnings in 2023. U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-earnings/2023/home.htm
Government agency at large	Canada Council for the Arts. (2024). 2023–24 annual report. https://canadacouncil.ca/-/media/Files/CCA/Corporate/Annual-Reports/en/2023-24_Annual-Report.pdf

In-text citations	Reference list entries
The World Health Organization (2019) advocated for including health care experts in national efforts to understand and address the impact of climate change on human health.	World Health Organization. (2019). WHO health and climate change survey report: Tracking global progress. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/329972/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.11-eng.pdf?sequence=1
The report described several ways in which classroom technology can support Universal Design for Learning (Office of Educational Technology, 2024).	Office of Educational Technology. (2024). A call to action for closing the digital access, design, and use divides: 2024 national educational technology plan. U.S. Department of Education. https://tech.ed.gov/files/2024/01/NETP24.pdf

APA	Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explained, “First impressions are crucial—if either the dog or cat is spooked during their first actual physical encounter, later meetings are less likely to go well” (p. 150).
Chicago	Bradshaw and Ellis (2016) explain, “First impressions are crucial—if either the dog or cat is spooked during their first actual physical encounter, later meetings are less likely to go well” (150).

Bibliography example	Thomas, Paul. The Science of Reading Movement: The Never-Ending Debate and the Need for a Different Approach to Reading Instruction. National Education Policy Center. September, 2022.https://nepc.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/publications/PB%20Thomas_0.pdf.
Chicago full note example	8. Paul Thomas, The Science of Reading Movement: The Never-Ending Debate and the Need for a Different Approach to Reading Instruction, National Education Policy Center, September, 2022, https://nepc.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/publications/PB%20Thomas_0.pdf.
Chicago short note example	10. Thomas, Science of Reading.